19th century

The century spanning 1801 through 1900 in the Gregorian calendar, marked by industrialization, expanding empires, and major political and scientific change.

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Industrial Revolution: The transition to machine-based manufacturing and industrial economies, beginning in Britain in the eighteenth century. Its expansion transformed production, cities, and labor across the century.
French Revolution of 1848: The uprising that ended the July Monarchy in France and established the Second Republic. It formed part of a wave of revolutions that spread across Europe in 1848.
Charles Darwin: The English naturalist who developed the theory of evolution by natural selection. His work changed scientific and public debates about life and human origins.
Gregorian calendar: The solar calendar introduced by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582 and used internationally today. Its year numbering defines the century’s stated dates.
Great Divergence: The historical debate over when and why Western Europe’s economies began to outpace those of Asia. Its timing determines how nineteenth-century industrial growth is explained.
Second Industrial Revolution: A late nineteenth-century wave of industrial change driven by steel, electricity, chemicals, and new production systems. It marks a distinct acceleration of technological and industrial change after mid-century.
Unification of Italy: The nineteenth-century political process that created the Kingdom of Italy in 1861 and completed unification in 1870. It shows nationalism turning fragmented territories into a modern nation-state.
Karl Marx: The German philosopher and political economist who co-authored The Communist Manifesto and wrote Capital. His critique of capitalism influenced labor movements and revolutionary politics.
18th century: The century spanning 1701 through 1800 in the Gregorian calendar. It contains the Enlightenment and early industrialization that preceded the nineteenth century.
Haitian Revolution: The 1791–1804 revolution that ended French colonial rule and slavery in Saint-Domingue, founding Haiti. Its aftermath challenged accounts centered on European revolutions and later abolition.