Al-Ghazali
Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (1058–1111) was a Persian Muslim theologian, jurist, philosopher, and mystic whose works shaped Sunni theology and Sufism.
Ash'ari theology: A Sunni theological tradition associated with Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari that uses rational argument to defend religious doctrines. Al-Ghazali used its arguments to defend Sunni doctrines while challenging philosophers.
The Incoherence of the Philosophers: Al-Ghazali's critique of Islamic philosophers, arguing that several of their doctrines conflict with Islamic teaching. This work presents his case against claims about eternity, divine knowledge, and resurrection.
Nizam al-Mulk: A Seljuk vizier who founded institutions of higher learning and served several sultans. His patronage helped bring Al-Ghazali to the prestigious Nizamiyya of Baghdad.
Sunni Islam: The largest branch of Islam, grounded in the Quran, prophetic tradition, and diverse legal and theological schools. His theological and legal works became influential across Sunni scholarly traditions.
Shafi'i school: A Sunni school of Islamic jurisprudence founded by Muhammad ibn Idris al-Shafi'i. Al-Ghazali's legal training and judgments belonged to this school.
The Revival of the Religious Sciences: Al-Ghazali's multivolume work integrating Islamic law, ethics, worship, and spiritual practice. It shows how he joined outward religious duties to inward moral reform.
Averroes: A twelfth-century Andalusi Muslim philosopher, jurist, and physician who defended Aristotelian philosophy. His response to Al-Ghazali became the best-known counterattack in their philosophical dispute.
Islamic jurisprudence: The discipline of interpreting Islamic sources to derive religious laws and practical rulings. His legal scholarship helped establish his authority beyond theology and mysticism.
Sufism: Islamic traditions of spiritual discipline that seek closeness to God through practices such as remembrance and self-examination. He made Sufi discipline central to a life of religious knowledge and practice.
Tahafut al-Tahafut: A defense of Islamic philosophy by Averroes, written in response to Al-Ghazali's critique. Averroes answers the objections that define Al-Ghazali's most famous philosophical controversy.