Cellular reprogramming

Cellular reprogramming is the induced alteration of a cell’s identity or developmental state by changing its regulatory programs. It can redirect differentiated cells toward pluripotency or another cell fate.

Yamanaka factors: A set of four transcription factors—OCT4, SOX2, KLF4, and c-MYC—that can induce pluripotency in differentiated cells. Their expression is the classic route for turning differentiated cells into induced pluripotent stem cells.
Nuclear transplantation: The transfer of a cell nucleus into an egg or other cell whose own nucleus has been removed. These experiments showed that differentiated nuclei retain genetic information needed for development.
Disease modeling: The use of cells, tissues, or organisms to reproduce features of a disease for research. Patient-derived reprogrammed cells can reproduce disease-relevant human cell types in culture.
Cellular differentiation: The process by which a cell acquires specialized structures and functions. Differentiation establishes specialized identity, while reprogramming alters or reverses it.
Transcription factor: A protein that binds specific DNA sequences and regulates gene transcription. Reprogramming factors alter cell identity by changing which genes are transcribed.
John Gurdon: A British developmental biologist whose nuclear-transfer experiments demonstrated that differentiated cells can regain developmental potential. His work established a foundation for experimentally reversing cell specialization.
Organoid: A three-dimensional, self-organizing cell culture that reproduces selected features of an organ. Reprogrammed stem cells can be differentiated into organoids for studying human development and disease.
Transdifferentiation: The conversion of one differentiated cell type into another, sometimes without passing through a stem-cell state. The term often describes direct lineage reprogramming and distinguishes it from induced pluripotency.
Epigenetic landscape: The pattern of regulatory marks and chromatin states that influences which genes a cell can express. Stable epigenetic marks help explain why changing a cell’s identity is difficult.
Dolly the sheep: The first mammal cloned from an adult somatic cell, born in 1996. Dolly’s cloning demonstrated that an adult cell nucleus could support development of an entire animal.

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