Century of Humiliation

A Chinese historical period conventionally dated from the First Opium War in 1839 or 1840 to the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, marked by foreign incursions and unequal treaties.

First Opium War: An 1839–1842 war between Qing China and Britain that ended with China’s defeat and the Treaty of Nanking. Its outbreak is the conventional beginning of the period.
Second Opium War: A 1856–1860 conflict in which Britain and France fought Qing China, securing expanded commercial and diplomatic privileges. It widened foreign access after the First Opium War.
First Sino-Japanese War: The 1894–1895 war between Qing China and Japan over influence in Korea, ending in a decisive Japanese victory. Its defeat accelerated foreign competition for Chinese concessions.
Taiping Rebellion: A massive mid-nineteenth-century civil war in China led by the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom against the Qing dynasty. Its devastation weakened the dynasty as foreign conflicts intensified.
New Imperialism: The late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century expansion of imperial power through territorial control, economic influence, and political pressure. It places China’s experience within a wider global era of imperial expansion.
Treaty of Nanking: The 1842 treaty that ended the First Opium War and imposed territorial, commercial, and diplomatic concessions on Qing China. It inaugurated the unequal-treaty system associated with the period.
Treaty ports: Ports opened to foreign trade and residence under treaties that limited Chinese control over access and jurisdiction. They made treaty privileges visible in coastal cities.
Treaty of Shimonoseki: The 1895 treaty that ended the First Sino-Japanese War and ceded Taiwan to Japan, among other concessions. Its territorial terms made the costs of defeat concrete.
Xinhai Revolution: The 1911 revolution that ended Qing rule and established the Republic of China. It transformed dynastic crisis into republican rule without ending foreign pressure.
Chinese Civil War: The protracted conflict between the Chinese Communist Party and the Kuomintang, culminating in the founding of the People’s Republic in 1949. Its outcome supplies the conventional endpoint, though foreign incursions did not simply cease.

Linked from 5 pages