Criminology
Criminology is the systematic study of crime, its causes and patterns, and society’s responses to offending and victimization.
Crime: An act or omission prohibited and punishable under criminal law. Criminology examines how crime is defined, distributed, and explained.
Strain theory: A family of theories linking pressure, blocked opportunities, or stressors to crime and deviance. It explains offending as one possible response to social pressures.
Cesare Beccaria: An Italian Enlightenment philosopher whose work argued for proportionate, predictable punishment and legal reform. His arguments helped shape classical theories of crime and punishment.
Crime prevention: Policies and practices intended to reduce crime, victimization, or opportunities for offending. Criminological evidence helps identify risks and evaluate prevention strategies.
Criminal law: The body of law defining offenses, criminal responsibility, and punishments. Legal definitions shape which acts criminologists count as crime.
Social learning theory: A theory that explains behavior through learned associations, reinforcement, and imitation. It accounts for how criminal conduct can be acquired and reinforced.
Cesare Lombroso: An Italian physician who advanced an influential, now-discredited theory linking criminality to inherited physical traits. His biological account became a landmark—and caution—in criminology’s history.
Penology: The study of punishment, prisons, and the social purposes and effects of penal systems. It examines how societies punish crime and with what consequences.
Victimology: The study of victims, victimization, and the social and institutional responses to them. It focuses criminological inquiry on victims and their experiences.
Labeling theory: A theory that examines how social reactions and labels shape identity and subsequent behavior. It shifts attention from offending alone to the consequences of being labeled.