Cutting

Cutting separates material by concentrating force along a narrow line or edge. It can remove material, divide an object, or create a shaped surface.

Shear force: A force that acts parallel to a surface or cross-section, tending to make adjacent parts slide past one another. Many cuts propagate by shearing material along the edge.
Hardness: A material’s resistance to localized permanent deformation, scratching, or indentation. A tool generally needs sufficient hardness to penetrate the material without blunting.
Machining: A group of manufacturing processes that remove material using tools to produce specified shapes and dimensions. Cutting is the material-removal principle behind many machining operations.
Tearing: The separation of material by pulling it apart, usually through crack growth from an edge or defect. Tearing relies primarily on tensile loading rather than force concentrated at a cutting edge.
Fracture mechanics: The study of how cracks initiate and grow under stress in materials. A cutting edge can drive a crack ahead of itself through brittle material.
Fracture toughness: A material’s resistance to crack growth in the presence of a flaw. Tough materials resist the crack propagation that can help a cut advance.
Sawing: A cutting process in which a toothed blade moves through material to divide it. Saw teeth make repeated small cuts to separate stock.
Grinding: An abrasive machining process that removes material through many small interactions with hard particles. Grinding removes material through distributed abrasion rather than one advancing edge.
Cutting edge: The sharpened boundary of a tool that concentrates force on material during cutting. Its sharpness and shape control how strongly force is concentrated.
Ductility: A material’s capacity to undergo plastic deformation before breaking. Ductility affects whether cutting creates chips, stretched edges, or burrs.

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