Earth science
Earth science studies Earth’s physical structure, materials, processes, and history, including its oceans, atmosphere, and interactions with life.
Geology: The study of Earth’s solid materials, structure, history, and processes. It examines the rocks, landforms, and interior that make up the solid Earth.
Plate tectonics: The theory that Earth’s outer shell is divided into moving plates whose interactions reshape the surface. Plate motion links earthquakes, mountain building, and ocean-basin change.
Natural hazard: A natural process or event that can cause harm to people, infrastructure, or ecosystems. Earth science identifies the processes behind hazards and helps assess exposure.
James Hutton: A Scottish geologist whose work helped establish deep time and uniformitarian geology. His account of slow geological change challenged short chronologies of Earth.
Anthropocene: A proposed geological epoch defined by the extensive influence of human activity on Earth systems. It frames debate about whether human impacts constitute a distinct interval in Earth history.
Meteorology: The study of the atmosphere and the processes that produce weather. It explains atmospheric conditions and their short-term changes.
Rock cycle: The set of processes through which rocks form, break down, and transform among major rock types. It traces how Earth materials are continually recycled.
Groundwater: Water stored beneath Earth’s surface in soil pores and fractures in rock. Geologic and hydrologic knowledge guides its protection and sustainable use.
Charles Lyell: A British geologist who argued that geological processes observed today explain much of Earth's past. His writings helped establish uniformitarian reasoning in geology.
Earth system science: An interdisciplinary study of interactions among Earth's atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and geosphere. It integrates the connected systems that separate Earth science disciplines often study individually.