First Fitna

The first major civil war in the early Islamic community, fought from 656 to 661 after Caliph Uthman’s assassination and ending with Muawiya’s rule.

Assassination of Uthman: The killing of the third Rashidun caliph in 656 by rebels who had besieged his house in Medina. His killing triggered the crisis that made the caliphate’s succession a matter of armed conflict.
Ali: The fourth Rashidun caliph and first Shia imam, who ruled from 656 until his assassination in 661. As caliph, he fought to retain authority against Muawiya and other challengers.
Rashidun Caliphate: The early Islamic caliphate ruled by Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali from 632 to 661. The First Fitna was the crisis that ended this period of unified rule.
Hasan–Muawiya Treaty: The 661 agreement by which Hasan ibn Ali ceded his claim to rule to Muawiya. It ended the main civil war and transferred political authority to Muawiya.
Battle of the Camel: A 656 battle near Basra between forces of Caliph Ali and a coalition including Aisha, Talha, and Zubayr. It was the first major battle of the civil war and centered on demands to avenge Uthman.
Muawiya I: The governor of Syria who became caliph in 661 and founded the Umayyad dynasty. His refusal to recognize Ali without retribution for Uthman drove the central rivalry.
Caliphate: An Islamic political institution headed by a caliph, understood as successor to Muhammad’s leadership of the Muslim community. Competing claims to this office lay at the heart of the conflict.
Umayyad Caliphate: The caliphate established by Muawiya I in 661 and ruled by the Umayyad dynasty. Muawiya’s victory transformed the postwar settlement into a dynastic government.
Battle of Siffin: A 657 battle on the Euphrates between Ali’s forces and Muawiya’s Syrian army. Its inconclusive outcome led to arbitration and weakened Ali’s authority.
Aisha: A wife of Muhammad and a prominent early Muslim authority who opposed Ali during the First Fitna. She joined the coalition that fought Ali at the Battle of the Camel.

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