Hard power
Hard power is a state's ability to influence other actors through coercion, especially military force or economic pressure.
Deterrence: A strategy that discourages an action by threatening costs greater than its expected benefits. A credible threat can make an adversary comply without force being used.
Soft power: The ability to shape others' preferences through attraction, legitimacy, and persuasion. It seeks influence without relying primarily on coercion or material threats.
NATO bombing of Yugoslavia: A 1999 NATO air campaign against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia during the Kosovo conflict. The campaign illustrates military coercion intended to alter a government's conduct.
Arms race: A competitive buildup of military capabilities by states responding to one another's preparations. Efforts to strengthen coercive capacity can prompt rivals to build forces in response.
National power: A state's capacity to pursue its interests and influence outcomes in international affairs. Hard power is one dimension of national power, centered on coercive resources.
Economic sanctions: Government-imposed restrictions on trade, finance, or other exchanges intended to change behavior. Sanctions apply coercive pressure by restricting access to markets, money, or goods.
Smart power: The strategic combination of coercive and attractive tools to pursue foreign-policy goals. It blends hard power with soft power instead of treating them as substitutes.
Cuban Missile Crisis: A 1962 confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union over Soviet missiles in Cuba. The U.S. naval quarantine combined military pressure with negotiation to secure missile removal.
Security dilemma: A situation in which one state's defensive measures make others feel less secure and provoke countermeasures. Military pressure intended to protect one state can trigger escalation by its targets.
Military capability: A state's ability to conduct military operations, shaped by forces, equipment, readiness, and logistics. It determines the credible force a state can threaten or employ.