History of genetic engineering

The development of techniques for deliberately altering organisms’ genetic material, from recombinant DNA experiments to programmable genome editing.

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DNA: The molecule that stores hereditary information in most organisms. Its structure and replication became the molecular basis for engineering hereditary material.
Recombinant DNA: DNA formed by joining genetic sequences from different sources. Its construction defined the first widely recognized genetic-engineering techniques.
Recombinant insulin: Human insulin produced by genetically engineered microorganisms. Its 1982 approval established a landmark medical use of recombinant DNA.
Recombinant DNA controversy: Public and scientific debate over the safety and governance of recombinant DNA research. It prompted scientists to pause some experiments and propose safeguards.
Restriction enzyme: An enzyme that cuts DNA at specific nucleotide sequences. These enzymes supplied precise cuts for assembling early recombinant DNA molecules.
Gene cloning: The production of many copies of a selected DNA sequence. Cloning made engineered genes easier to propagate, study, and transfer.
Flavr Savr: A genetically engineered tomato marketed in the United States beginning in 1994. It was the first genetically engineered food crop approved for sale there.
Genetically modified food controversies: Public disputes about the safety, regulation, ownership, and social effects of genetically modified foods. Crop engineering brought laboratory questions into markets, policy, and public debate.
Plasmid: A DNA molecule that replicates independently of a cell’s chromosomes, common in bacteria. Plasmids became carriers for introduced genes in foundational experiments.
Transgenic organism: An organism whose genome contains DNA introduced from another organism or source. Transgenic organisms were a major outcome of recombinant DNA methods.