Internment of Japanese Americans

The forced removal and incarceration of about 120,000 people of Japanese ancestry from the U.S. West Coast during World War II, most of them American citizens.

Executive Order 9066: A 1942 presidential order authorizing military commanders to exclude people from designated areas. It gave the military authority used to remove Japanese Americans from the West Coast.
Japanese American history: The history of people of Japanese ancestry in the United States and their communities. Earlier immigration restrictions and discrimination shaped the conditions for mass removal.
Fred Korematsu: A Japanese American who defied an exclusion order and challenged his conviction in court. His case became the best-known legal challenge to removal and incarceration.
Korematsu v. United States: A 1944 Supreme Court decision that upheld Fred Korematsu’s conviction for violating an exclusion order. The ruling legitimized exclusion while leaving the wider incarceration policy unresolved.
Internment of German Americans: The wartime detention of some German nationals and German Americans by the United States during World War II. Its narrower scale and reliance on individual proceedings contrast with mass removal by ancestry.
Civilian Exclusion Order No. 34: A 1942 military order requiring people of Japanese ancestry in parts of San Francisco to leave their homes. It shows how Executive Order 9066 became a specific local removal directive.
Japanese American exclusion: The wartime policy barring people of Japanese ancestry from designated areas of the United States. The exclusion policy directly preceded and enabled confinement in camps.
Gordon Hirabayashi: A Japanese American who refused to obey wartime curfew and exclusion orders and challenged them in court. His challenge tested the constitutionality of military restrictions on Japanese Americans.
Ex parte Endo: A 1944 Supreme Court decision holding that the government lacked authority to detain a concededly loyal U.S. citizen. The decision helped bring the wartime confinement program to an end.
Internment of Italian Americans: Wartime restrictions and detention imposed by the United States on some Italian nationals and Italian Americans. Comparing these measures shows how policy differed across groups of ancestry.

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