Islamic theology

Islamic theology is the systematic study and articulation of beliefs about God, revelation, creation, and human responsibility in Islam. Its traditions use scripture, reason, and debate in different ways.

Tawhid: The Islamic doctrine of God’s absolute oneness and uniqueness. Its account of divine unity anchors Islamic claims about God and worship.
Ilm al-kalam: A disciplined form of Islamic theological debate that uses argument to examine doctrines. It is the principal tradition of systematic doctrinal argument within Islam.
Free will in Islam: The debate over whether and how human beings can choose actions under God’s sovereignty. Theologians disagree over how divine determination can coexist with human responsibility.
Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari: A ninth- and tenth-century Muslim theologian associated with the founding of Ash'arism. His turn toward Sunni theological defense gave a school its enduring name.
First Fitna: The first major civil war among Muslims, fought from 656 to 661 after the killing of Caliph Uthman. Early political conflict raised questions about sin, legitimate leadership, and communal belonging.
Quran: The central scripture of Islam, regarded by Muslims as God’s revelation to Muhammad. The Quran supplies foundational claims that theologians interpret and defend.
Ash'arism: A Sunni theological school associated with Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari and later scholars. Its synthesis of transmitted revelation and rational argument shaped Sunni theology.
Createdness of the Quran: The debate over whether the Quran is created in time or eternally uncreated. This controversy made the nature of revelation a test of theological method and authority.
Abu Mansur al-Maturidi: A tenth-century Muslim theologian whose teachings became the basis of Maturidism. His work formed a major Sunni account of reason and religious knowledge.
Miḥna: An Abbasid inquisition that enforced the doctrine that the Quran was created during the ninth century. The state’s enforcement of a theological position made doctrinal debate a matter of power.

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