John Marshall

John Marshall (1876–1958) was a British archaeologist who directed the Archaeological Survey of India from 1902 to 1928. He oversaw major excavations at Taxila, Mohenjo-daro, and Harappa.

Alexander Cunningham: A British archaeologist who founded the Archaeological Survey of India and served as its first director-general. Cunningham established the institution Marshall later reorganized and led.
Indus Valley Civilization: A Bronze Age civilization that flourished across parts of South Asia from about 2600 to 1900 BCE. Marshall announced its existence after excavations revealed the scale and antiquity of its cities.
Excavation (archaeology): The systematic removal and recording of archaeological deposits to investigate past human activity. Excavation was the main field method through which Marshall’s teams uncovered ancient sites.
Indus script: The undeciphered writing system found on seals and other objects of the Indus Valley Civilization. The script’s continued unreadability limits what Marshall’s discoveries can establish about Indus society.
Mortimer Wheeler: A British archaeologist who directed the Archaeological Survey of India from 1944 to 1948. Wheeler succeeded Marshall’s generation and promoted more systematic excavation methods.
Mohenjo-daro: A major urban center of the Indus Valley Civilization in present-day Sindh, Pakistan. Marshall oversaw excavations that brought this Indus city to international attention.
Archaeological stratigraphy: The study of layered deposits to establish the sequence and relative age of archaeological remains. Stratigraphic evidence helped distinguish successive occupations at sites such as Taxila.
Indus Valley Civilization chronology: The archaeological dating framework for the development and decline of the Indus urban civilization. Later dating evidence refined the timeline that Marshall’s excavations helped bring into view.
Rakhal Das Banerji: An Indian archaeologist whose excavations at Mohenjo-daro helped identify the Indus civilization. Banerji’s fieldwork at Mohenjo-daro became central to the discoveries announced under Marshall.
Harappa: A major Indus Valley Civilization city in present-day Punjab, Pakistan. Its excavations, directed by Daya Ram Sahni, helped establish the civilization Marshall announced.

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XYZ AffairRelated: His published account of the mission helped expose the French agents’ demands.