Kantian ethics

Kantian ethics grounds moral duties in principles that rational agents can will as universal laws. It requires treating humanity, in oneself and others, always as an end and never merely as a means.

Categorical imperative: Kant’s unconditional principle of morality, binding independently of personal desires or expected outcomes. Its formulations supply the tests Kantian ethics uses to assess maxims.
Formula of Universal Law: A categorical-imperative formulation requiring maxims to be fit for universal legislation. It tests whether an action’s maxim can be consistently universalized.
Immanuel Kant: An eighteenth-century German philosopher whose works shaped modern metaphysics, epistemology, and moral philosophy. He developed the moral theory and its central arguments.
Utilitarianism: A consequentialist theory that evaluates actions by their contribution to overall well-being. It judges actions by outcomes, unlike Kant’s emphasis on duty and permissible principles.
Kantian ethics and lying: The application of Kantian moral principles to deception and truth-telling. Kant’s strict treatment of lying tests whether duties admit exceptions.
Hypothetical imperative: A command that applies conditionally, given an agent’s chosen end or desire. Its conditional force contrasts with the unconditional demands of moral duty.
Formula of Humanity: A categorical-imperative formulation requiring humanity to be treated always as an end, never merely as a means. It expresses the theory’s distinctive constraint on how people may be treated.
Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals: Kant’s 1785 work introducing key foundations and formulations of his moral philosophy. It offers the clearest compact statement of the categorical imperative.
Virtue ethics: An approach to ethics that centers on virtues and the character of moral agents. It focuses on character and flourishing rather than primarily on universal duties.
Kantian ethics and punishment: The application of Kantian principles to criminal punishment and justice. Kant’s retributive account connects punishment to responsibility and respect for persons.

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