Longitudinal study

A study that observes the same individuals or units at multiple points in time. Repeated observations can reveal change and establish the timing of events.

Repeated measures design: A research design in which the same participants are measured under multiple conditions or at multiple times. It describes the within-person measurement structure that longitudinal studies use.
Cross-sectional study: A study that measures a population or sample at a single point in time. It compares people at one time rather than tracking the same units.
Framingham Heart Study: A long-running cohort study of cardiovascular disease that began in Framingham, Massachusetts, in 1948. Its repeated follow-up helped identify risk factors for heart disease.
Temporal precedence: The condition that a proposed cause occurs before its effect. Repeated timing can establish whether an exposure preceded an outcome.
Panel study: A study that repeatedly surveys or measures the same sample of people over time. It is a common longitudinal design centered on a continuing sample.
Case-control study: An observational study that compares people with an outcome to people without it, often examining prior exposures. It selects participants by outcome instead of following a cohort forward.
Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study: A longitudinal study following people born in Dunedin, New Zealand, in 1972–1973. It illustrates how repeated assessments can trace health and development across a lifespan.
Causal inference: The process of estimating whether and how an intervention or exposure causes an outcome. Longitudinal evidence helps establish sequence but alone does not prove causation.
Cohort study: An observational study that follows a group sharing a defined characteristic, often across time. Following a defined group over time is a major longitudinal approach.
Time-series analysis: Statistical analysis of observations recorded sequentially over time, often for one or more aggregated processes. It studies temporal patterns without necessarily following individual participants.

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