Ma Hualong

Ma Hualong was a Hui Muslim leader of the Jahriyya Sufi order who led a major rebellion in northwestern China from 1862 until his execution in 1871.

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Jahriyya: A Naqshbandi Sufi order founded in China in the eighteenth century, known for its vocal dhikr. Ma Hualong led its Chinese community during the upheavals that began in 1862.
Jahangir Khoja: A Sufi leader of the Afaqi Khoja lineage who led rebellions against Qing rule in Xinjiang in the early nineteenth century. His earlier rebellion shows another way Sufi authority mobilized resistance to Qing power.
Zuo Zongtang: A Qing official and general who led campaigns to restore imperial control in northwest China. He directed the Qing campaign that ended Ma Hualong's resistance.
Jahriyya in China: The Chinese branch of the Naqshbandi Sufi order founded by Ma Mingxin in the eighteenth century. Ma Hualong's defeat altered the order's leadership and standing under Qing rule.
Hui people: A predominantly Chinese-speaking ethnic group in China, historically associated with Islam. Ma Hualong was a Hui leader whose religious and political authority drew on community ties.
Xianfeng Emperor: The Qing emperor who reigned from 1850 to 1861 during the Taiping Rebellion and other internal crises. His reign's weakening of Qing authority preceded the revolt Ma Hualong led.
Ma Zhan'ao: A Hui Muslim military leader who surrendered to the Qing during the Dungan Revolt and later served the dynasty. His accommodation with the Qing contrasts with Ma Hualong's prolonged resistance.
Ma Mingxin: A Chinese Sufi teacher who founded the Jahriyya order in the eighteenth century. As the order's founder, he established the religious tradition Ma Hualong later led.
Qing dynasty: China's last imperial dynasty, ruled by the Manchu Aisin Gioro house from 1644 to 1912. Qing rule shaped the political order against which Ma Hualong's rebellion unfolded.
Tongzhi Restoration: A Qing government effort to restore imperial authority and institutions after the mid-nineteenth-century rebellions. The restoration's campaigns gave the Qing state resources to suppress Ma Hualong's forces.