Manuel Noriega

Manuel Noriega was Panama’s military ruler from 1983 to 1989. U.S. forces deposed him in 1989; he was later convicted of drug trafficking in the United States.

Panama National Guard: Panama’s military and security force, which became the country’s dominant political institution after the 1968 coup. Noriega rose through this institution before taking control of Panama.
Panamanian Defense Forces: The military organization created in 1983 by combining Panama’s armed and security forces under one command. Noriega used its centralized command to dominate the state and suppress opposition.
1989 Panamanian general election: The May 1989 election in which opposition candidate Guillermo Endara won, but the results were annulled by Noriega’s government. The annulment intensified the domestic and international crisis confronting Noriega.
Guillermo Endara: Panamanian politician who became president after Noriega’s removal and the annulled 1989 election. Endara’s presidency followed the election Noriega annulled and the U.S. invasion.
Omar Torrijos: Panamanian military ruler who governed from 1968 until his death in 1981 and negotiated the Panama Canal treaties. Torrijos mentored Noriega and helped build the political order Noriega later inherited.
G-2 (Panama): Panama’s military intelligence service, responsible for domestic surveillance and political security. Noriega led military intelligence before ruling and relied on its surveillance apparatus.
United States invasion of Panama: The U.S. military operation launched in Panama on December 20, 1989, to remove Noriega’s government. The invasion ended Noriega’s rule and brought about his surrender.
Panama invasion civilian casualties: Deaths and injuries among Panamanian civilians during the 1989 U.S. invasion of Panama. Civilian harm remains central to assessments of the invasion that ended Noriega’s rule.
Panama Canal Treaties: The 1977 agreements that set the transfer of the Panama Canal from U.S. to Panamanian control. Their implementation shaped Noriega’s dealings with Washington and Panama’s military government.
Drug trafficking: The production, transport, or sale of controlled drugs in violation of law. U.S. prosecutors convicted Noriega of protecting cocaine trafficking and accepting payments from traffickers.

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