Orthography

Orthography is a language’s conventional system of writing, including spelling rules and the use of letters, diacritics, and punctuation.

Writing system: A set of symbols and conventions used to represent language in writing. Orthography is the conventional layer that governs how a writing system is used.
Alphabetic writing system: A writing system whose symbols primarily represent consonants and vowels in spoken language. Alphabetic orthographies organize letters to represent a language’s sound distinctions.
Phonemic orthography: An orthography in which each phoneme is represented consistently by a distinct written form. It contrasts with systems that preserve historical spellings or encode morphology despite sound changes.
Literacy: The ability to read and write in a language. Learning a language’s orthography is part of acquiring reading and writing skills.
Grapheme: A minimal unit of a writing system that can distinguish meaning or represent a sound. Graphemes are the basic written units whose forms and combinations orthography regulates.
Phoneme: A sound category that distinguishes words in a particular language. Some orthographies represent phonemes consistently; others preserve historical or grammatical distinctions.
Deep orthography: An orthography in which spelling is not consistently predictable from pronunciation. English exemplifies the distance between conventional spelling and present-day sound.
Dyslexia: A learning disability involving persistent difficulty with accurate or fluent word recognition and spelling. Orthographic consistency can affect how demanding word reading and spelling are.
Spelling: The conventional written form of a word, including the letters and marks used to represent it. Spelling rules are a central part of orthographic convention.
Morphology: The study of word structure and the meaningful units that words contain. Spellings may preserve morphemes even when pronunciation changes across related forms.

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