Photoelectron spectroscopy

Photoelectron spectroscopy measures the kinetic energies of electrons ejected when a material absorbs photons, using energy conservation to infer electron binding energies.

Photoelectric effect: The emission of electrons from matter after it absorbs electromagnetic radiation. The method relies on this effect to eject electrons from the sample.
Ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy: A photoelectron method using ultraviolet photons to measure valence electronic states. It resolves molecular and solid-state valence levels with relatively low photon energies.
Electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis: A surface-analysis technique that uses X-ray-excited photoelectrons to determine elemental composition and chemical states. It is the established analytical use of X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.
Auger electron spectroscopy: A surface-analysis method that identifies elements by measuring electrons emitted during Auger relaxation. It detects relaxation electrons rather than electrons ejected directly by photon absorption.
Einstein’s photoelectric equation: An energy-conservation relation connecting photon energy, electron kinetic energy, and the energy needed to remove an electron. It converts measured kinetic energies into electron binding energies.
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy: A photoelectron method using X-rays to measure elemental composition and chemical states near a surface. Its higher-energy photons eject core electrons characteristic of particular elements.
Chemical shift: A change in a spectral feature’s energy caused by an atom’s chemical environment. Core-level shifts distinguish oxidation states and chemical bonding.
Electron energy-loss spectroscopy: A method that infers material excitations from the energy lost by transmitted or scattered electrons. It measures energy transferred from an electron beam, not photoelectron kinetic energy.
Work function: The minimum energy required to remove an electron from a solid into vacuum. It sets the energy reference for electrons emitted from a solid.
Angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy: A photoelectron method that measures emission angle to map electronic energy and momentum. Angular information reveals band dispersion that energy-only measurements omit.

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