Qing dynasty

China’s last imperial dynasty, ruled by the Manchu Aisin Gioro house from 1644 to 1912. It expanded the empire to its greatest territorial extent before falling amid revolution and foreign pressure.

Later Jin: A Manchu state founded by Nurhaci in 1616, renamed the Qing in 1636. Its institutions and campaigns laid the foundation for Qing rule.
Kangxi Emperor: The Qing emperor who reigned from 1661 to 1722, consolidating rule and expanding the empire. His long reign established durable authority after the conquest.
Qianlong Emperor: The Qing emperor who reigned from 1735 to 1796, overseeing territorial expansion and cultural projects. His reign marked the dynasty’s high point and exposed strains beneath its prosperity.
Dzungar–Qing Wars: A series of conflicts through which the Qing defeated the Dzungar Khanate and expanded into Central Asia. These campaigns helped establish the empire’s northwestern territories.
Republic of China: A republic founded in 1912 after the Qing abdication, governing mainland China until 1949 and Taiwan thereafter. It replaced hereditary imperial rule with a republican political framework.
Nurhaci: The Jurchen-Manchu leader who founded the Later Jin state and unified many Manchu groups. His conquests and reforms began the dynasty’s rise.
Grand Council: A Qing central advisory and decision-making body that developed in the early eighteenth century. It enabled emperors to coordinate sensitive military and administrative decisions.
Empress Dowager Cixi: A Qing court power who dominated imperial politics for much of the late nineteenth century. Her influence shaped the dynasty’s response to crisis and reform.
Taiping Rebellion: A massive civil war in southern China from 1850 to 1864, led by the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. The rebellion weakened Qing authority and devastated broad regions.
Ming loyalism: Political and military allegiance to the overthrown Ming dynasty after the Qing conquest. Loyalist resistance contested the legitimacy of Manchu rule.

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