Revolutions of the 1820s

Political uprisings and independence movements during the 1820s, including revolutions in southern Europe and the Greek struggle for independence.

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Greek War of Independence: An armed struggle from 1821 to 1829 that ended Ottoman rule over much of Greece. The decade’s most successful independence struggle, aided by growing European support.
Concert of Europe: A system of great-power consultation established after the Napoleonic Wars to preserve European order. Its members debated whether intervention should suppress constitutional revolts.
Napoleonic Wars: A series of European conflicts from 1803 to 1815 involving Napoleonic France and shifting coalitions. The wars disrupted empires and spread political ideas that shaped later revolts.
Spanish American wars of independence: The wars that ended Spanish rule across most of continental Spanish America in the early nineteenth century. Their final campaigns overlapped the decade’s European revolts and transformed the Atlantic world.
Spanish Revolution of 1820: A military uprising that restored Spain’s liberal Constitution of 1812 and began the Liberal Triennium. It launched the decade’s wave of constitutional revolts in southern Europe.
Congress of Verona: An 1822 meeting of European powers that addressed revolution, including France’s intervention in Spain. The congress preceded the French campaign that restored Spanish absolutism.
Congress of Vienna: The 1814–1815 diplomatic settlement that reorganized Europe after Napoleon’s defeat. Its restoration of conservative rule became a target of constitutional opposition.
Battle of Ayacucho: An 1824 battle in Peru that secured the decisive defeat of Spanish royalist forces in South America. It marked the collapse of Spain’s mainland empire during the revolutionary decade.
Revolution of 1820 in Portugal: A liberal uprising that began in Porto and prompted Portugal’s return to constitutional government. Its constitutional demands helped make revolution a regional phenomenon.
French invasion of Spain: The 1823 French military campaign that ended Spain’s Liberal Triennium and restored Ferdinand VII’s authority. It demonstrates how foreign armies could reverse a successful revolution.