Knowra Robert K. Merton Robert K. Merton Robert K. Merton was an American sociologist whose theories shaped the study of social structure, deviance, scientific norms, and self-fulfilling prophecies.
Middle-range theory : A sociological approach that develops theories focused enough to test against empirical evidence but broad enough to explain recurring social patterns. Merton championed this approach as a bridge between isolated findings and sweeping social systems.
Strain theory : A theory that explains some deviance as adaptation to pressure arising when socially valued goals and legitimate means are misaligned. Merton’s account of anomie is a foundational version of sociological strain theory.
Talcott Parsons : An American sociologist who developed a broad theory of social systems and action. Merton studied with Parsons but favored testable, limited-scope theories over grand theory.
Sociology of science : The study of science as a social institution, including its norms, organizations, careers, and systems of knowledge. Merton established enduring frameworks for studying science as a social institution.
Structural functionalism : A sociological perspective that examines how social structures contribute to the operation and persistence of social systems. Merton revised functionalism by distinguishing functions from dysfunctions and rejecting claims of universal necessity.
Manifest and latent functions : Manifest functions are intended and recognized consequences of social practices; latent functions are unintended or unrecognized consequences. This distinction anchors Merton’s account of how institutions produce consequences beyond their stated purposes.
Merton's modes of adaptation : Five responses to cultural goals and institutional means: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and rebellion. These modes specify how people adapt when access to accepted means is restricted.
Paul Lazarsfeld : An Austrian-American sociologist who pioneered quantitative methods and empirical research on communication and public opinion. Merton collaborated with Lazarsfeld on research methods and the sociology of mass communication.
CUDOS : A mnemonic for scientific norms: communalism, universalism, disinterestedness, and organized skepticism. Merton’s account of science emphasized these norms as ideals governing scientific communities.
Deviance : Conduct or conditions that violate social norms and attract social disapproval or formal sanction. Merton’s strain theory made social arrangements, not individual pathology alone, central to explaining deviance.
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