Scientific consensus

Scientific consensus is broad agreement among scientists about claims supported by accumulated evidence. It reflects the convergence of results and scrutiny, not unanimity or proof beyond revision.

Peer review: Evaluation of scholarly work by specialists before publication or funding. Peer review scrutinizes individual findings that may contribute to a broader shared view.
Empirical evidence: Information obtained through observation or experiment and used to assess claims. Consensus rests on evidence that can be examined and tested.
Climate change: Long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns, driven today mainly by human greenhouse gas emissions. Human-caused warming is a prominent case of strong scientific agreement informing public debate.
Scientific communication: The exchange of scientific knowledge among researchers and between science and public audiences. Communicating the degree and limits of agreement shapes how findings are understood.
Replication crisis: A recognition that many published research findings have not reproduced reliably in subsequent studies. Failed replications expose weaknesses that can undermine confidence in apparent agreement.
Scientific uncertainty: The limits of certainty in scientific knowledge arising from incomplete evidence, measurement, or models. Agreement can be strong while important uncertainties remain.
Tobacco smoking and health: The body of evidence linking tobacco smoking to diseases including lung cancer and cardiovascular illness. The history of smoking research shows how accumulating evidence can establish a health consensus.
Science denial: The rejection of well-supported scientific findings despite substantial evidence and expert agreement. Denial can misrepresent the strength or scope of an established consensus.
Meta-analysis: A statistical method that combines results from multiple studies addressing a related question. Pooling study results can reveal how strongly evidence supports a shared conclusion.
Scientific disagreement: Differences among scientists over evidence, methods, interpretations, or explanations. Disagreement often persists within a consensus about a claim's central features.

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