Eastern Question

The diplomatic and political problems created by the Ottoman Empire’s decline and European powers’ competing ambitions over its territories.

Crimean War: A war fought from 1853 to 1856 between Russia and the Ottoman Empire, backed by Britain, France, and Sardinia. It checked Russian expansion and exposed the instability of the Ottoman balance of power.
Greek War of Independence: The revolt against Ottoman rule that established an independent Greek state in the 1820s. European intervention in the revolt showed that the empire’s internal conflicts could invite outside military action.
Otto von Bismarck: The Prussian and German statesman who hosted the Congress of Berlin in 1878. He brokered a revision of the Balkan settlement to reduce the risk of conflict among European powers.
Pan-Slavism: A movement promoting cultural and political solidarity among Slavic peoples. Its appeal to Balkan Slavs could support Russian influence while threatening Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian control.
Treaty of San Stefano: The 1878 treaty ending the Russo-Turkish War and creating a large autonomous Bulgaria under strong Russian influence. Its terms alarmed rival powers and prompted the Congress of Berlin to revise the settlement.
Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca: The 1774 treaty ending the Russo-Turkish War and expanding Russian influence around the Black Sea. Its provisions gave Russia leverage in Ottoman affairs and helped make the empire’s future an international concern.
Bosnian Crisis: The 1908 annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary, provoking a major diplomatic dispute. The crisis exposed how Ottoman territories could become flashpoints among European rivals.
Benjamin Disraeli: The British prime minister who represented Britain at the Congress of Berlin in 1878. His diplomacy secured Cyprus for Britain and sought to restrain Russian influence.
Concert of Europe: A system of great-power consultation established after the Napoleonic Wars to manage European disputes. Its conferences offered a diplomatic framework for handling Ottoman crises without immediate general war.
Treaty of Berlin: The 1878 treaty that revised the San Stefano settlement and reorganized Ottoman territories in southeastern Europe. It formalized a compromise that left grievances among Russia, the Balkan states, and the Ottoman Empire.

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