Freedom of expression

Freedom of expression is the right to communicate ideas and information without unjustified restriction. It includes speech, writing, art, peaceful assembly, and access to information.

International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: A 1966 United Nations treaty that protects civil and political rights, including expression, under international law. Article 19 sets out the right and conditions under which states may restrict it.
Censorship: The suppression or control of communication by governments, institutions, or other authorities. It names the restriction freedom of expression protects against when unjustified.
Areopagitica: John Milton's 1644 pamphlet arguing against Parliament's prepublication licensing of books. Its case against prior licensing became a landmark defense of uncensored publication.
Freedom of the press: The protection of media and publishers from unjustified interference in gathering and communicating information. It applies expression rights to reporting, publication, and scrutiny of public power.
Marketplace of ideas: A theory that open competition among ideas helps people evaluate claims and discover truth. It explains one influential rationale for protecting even unpopular speech.
European Convention on Human Rights: A 1950 treaty that protects human rights in member states of the Council of Europe. Article 10 protects expression and grounds European Court of Human Rights review.
Defamation: A false statement of fact that unlawfully harms another person's reputation. Defamation law illustrates how protection for expression can coexist with remedies for injury.
John Milton: An English poet and political writer whose prose argued for religious and political liberty. His writings helped shape later arguments against restrictions on publication.
Whistleblowing: The disclosure of information about suspected wrongdoing within an organization. Protection for sources and disclosures can expose misconduct in the public interest.
Democracy: A system of government in which people exercise political power, directly or through elected representatives. Public debate and criticism let people participate in and hold government accountable.

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