Moral philosophy
Moral philosophy examines what makes actions right or wrong, what character traits are virtues, and what constitutes a good life.
Normative ethics: The branch of ethics that develops standards for right action and good character. It formulates the standards that moral philosophy investigates.
Consequentialism: The family of ethical theories that evaluates actions by their consequences. It makes outcomes the primary basis for judging an action.
Aristotle: An ancient Greek philosopher whose works shaped logic, science, politics, and ethics. His account of virtue and flourishing became a foundational ethical tradition.
Descriptive ethics: The empirical study of what people and societies believe about morality. It reports moral beliefs rather than deciding which beliefs are justified.
Bioethics: The study of ethical questions arising in biology, medicine, and health care. It applies moral principles to decisions about health, life, and research.
Metaethics: The study of the meaning, truth, and grounds of moral judgments. It asks what moral claims mean and whether they can be true.
Deontology: The family of ethical theories that grounds duties in rules, rights, or reasons independent of outcomes. It treats some duties as binding even when breaking them would improve results.
Immanuel Kant: An eighteenth-century German philosopher known for a major theory of duty and autonomy. His ethics grounds obligation in rational principles rather than desired outcomes.
Moral relativism: The view that moral truth or justification depends on a culture, framework, or perspective. It challenges claims that moral standards apply independently of perspectives.
Environmental ethics: The study of moral duties toward animals, ecosystems, and the natural environment. It extends ethical concern beyond human-to-human relations.