Treaty of Tianjin

The Treaty of Tianjin was a group of 1858 agreements between the Qing Empire and foreign powers that opened more Chinese ports and expanded foreign diplomatic and commercial rights.

Convention of Peking: A 1860 agreement that ended the main fighting of the Second Opium War and enforced and expanded the 1858 treaties. It enforced the Treaty of Tianjin after renewed war and added further concessions.
Most-favored-nation clause: A treaty provision granting one country treatment at least as favorable as that given to another country. Most-favored-nation provisions helped foreign states claim privileges granted in other agreements.
Arrow Incident: A 1856 dispute over the seizure of a Chinese-owned vessel, used by Britain as a pretext for military action against the Qing Empire. Britain invoked the incident in the conflict that led to treaty negotiations.
Treaty of Aigun: A 1858 agreement between Russia and the Qing Empire that transferred territory north of the Amur River to Russia. It was a separate Russo-Qing agreement of 1858, focused on territorial boundaries rather than port access.
Second Opium War: A war fought from 1856 to 1860 between the Qing Empire and Britain and France, with the United States and Russia also involved diplomatically. The treaties were negotiated during the conflict but required military victories for enforcement.
Extraterritoriality: A legal arrangement under which a state’s nationals are exempt from the local jurisdiction of another state. The treaties extended foreign consular jurisdiction over nationals in China.
Treaty of Nanjing: The 1842 agreement that ended the First Opium War and opened five Chinese ports to British trade. Its limited port openings and commercial terms formed an earlier stage of treaty pressure.
Treaty of Wanghia: A 1844 agreement between the United States and the Qing Empire that established American commercial and legal privileges in China. It shows how earlier bilateral treaties granted foreign privileges before the 1858 agreements.
Unequal treaties: Agreements imposed on China by foreign powers that granted privileges and restricted Qing sovereignty. The 1858 agreements became a major part of the treaty system associated with constrained Qing sovereignty.
Diplomatic relations: Official political relations maintained between states through representatives and negotiated agreements. The agreements authorized foreign diplomatic representation at the Qing capital.

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